Mulyadi (2000). Struktur semantis verba Bahasa Indonesia [The semantic structure of verbs in Indonesian]. Linguistika, 13, 40-52.
(2000) Malay – Communicative style
Goddard, Cliff (2000). “Cultural scripts” and communicative style in Malay (Bahasa Melayu). Anthropological Linguistics, 42(1), 81-106. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30028746
The “cultural scripts” approach is a descriptive technique that has grown out of the cross-cultural semantic theory of Anna Wierzbicka. The author uses this technique to describe and make sense of aspects of Malay communicative style. The proposed Malay cultural scripts are linked with the importance placed on appropriate (patut, sesuai) behavior and on nasihat ‘advice’, and on the need to balas budi (roughly) ‘return good treatment’, to jaga hati orang ‘look after people’s feelings’, and to menghormati ‘show respect, deference’.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2001) English, Malay – Attitudes
Goddard, Cliff (2001). Sabar, ikhlas, setia – patient, sincere, loyal? Contrastive semantics of some ‘virtues’ in Malay and English. Journal of Pragmatics, 33(5), 653-681. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-2166(00)00028-X
The words sabar, ikhlas, and setia arguably identify core personal virtues in traditional Malay culture. Using Anna Wierzbicka’s ‘Natural Semantic Metalanguage’ (NSM) approach, this paper undertakes a contrastive semantic analysis of these terms and their usual English translations, such as patient, sincere, and loyal. A number of significant meaning differences are brought to light, allowing an improved understanding of the cultural semantics of the Malay concepts.
(2001) Indonesian – Emotions
Mulyadi (2001). Konsep emosi dalam Bahasa Melayu [Emotion concepts in Malay]. Dewan Bahasa, February 2001, 28-35.
(2001) Malay – Cultural key words / Emotions / Ethnopsychology and personhood
Goddard, Cliff (2001). Hati: A key word in the Malay vocabulary of emotion. In Jean Harkins, & Anna Wierzbicka (Eds.), Emotions in crosslinguistic perspective (pp. 167-195). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110880168.167
Abstract:
The word hati is one of the key words of Malay culture: it functions as a conceptual focal point for an entire complex of characteristically Malay values, attitudes and expectations. By studying the meaning and uses of this one word we can learn a surprising amount about Malay culture – in particular, about the conceptualization of emotion in Malay culture.
The aims of this paper are threefold: first, to outline the range of use and collocational possibilities of hati, informally comparing and contrasting it with English heart; second, to advance and argue for an explicit semantic explication of hati in its core or central meaning (as in an expression like hati orang ‘a person’s hati‘); third, to explicate the semantics of five common fixed expressions involving hati, all of which designate what we might term feeling states or emotional reactions: susah hati ‘troubled, worried’, senang hati ‘relaxed, easy at heart’; sakit hati ‘annoyed, offended’, puas hati ‘satisfied (with someone)’, and kecil hati ‘feel hurt’.
Rating:
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2001) Malay – Focus particles (PUN)
Goddard, Cliff (2001). The polyfunctional Malay focus particle pun. Multilingua, 20(1), 27-59. DOI: 10.1515/multi.2001.002
This is a study of the usage and semantics of the focus particle pun in contemporary Malay (Bahasa Melayu), the national language of Malaysia. Drawing on a sizeable corpus of naturally occurring textual examples, I propose a small set of semantic explications for pun, within the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) framework. The polyfunctionality of pun, and its diverse range of translation equivalents and effects, is shown to be attributable partly to polysemy and partly to the operation of contextual inference.
(2002) Emotions
Goddard, Cliff (2002). Explicating emotions across languages and cultures: A semantic approach. In Susan R. Fussell (Ed.), The verbal communication of emotions: Interdisciplinary perspectives (pp. 19-53). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
This chapter sketches out the integrated and meaning-based approach to the study of emotions that has been pioneered by Anna Wierzbicka. It seeks to bring together the study of the emotion lexicon of different languages with the study of different “cultural scripts” that are one factor (among others, of course) influencing the expression of emotions in discourse. More than this, it also aims to take in the encoding of emotional meanings by means of other linguistic devices, such as exclamations and specialized grammatical constructions, and even the encoding of emotional meanings in facial expressions and kinaesthetics. Because the Natural Semantic Metalanguage is based on simple, universally available meanings, it provides a tool that enables us to undertake this very broad range of investigations across languages and cultures, while minimizing the risk of ethnocentrism creeping into the very terms of description.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2002) English, Malay – AMOK
Hamid, Hazidi bin Haji Abdul (2002). Similar words, different meanings: A Natural Semantic Metalanguage exploration of cultural differences. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 2(1). PDF (open access)
Anna Wierbicka and other Natural Semantic Metalanguage (henceforth NSM) practitioners often argue that anthropologists and psychologists, particularly Western, are wrong for applying concepts like mind, anger and depression to foreign cultures because these cultures do not have words with similar intention and extensions. Their critics on the other hand argue that the NSM critique is unjustified because, while other cultures do not necessarily have similar words, they must have corresponding concepts simply because people in these other cultures, like in Malaysia, experience feelings like these. This paper intends to show that the NSM critique is justified because these corresponding concepts can be similar to a certain extent but can also carry great semantic difference when broken down to their more basic elements of meaning. More importantly, this is done using analysis of the Malay language.
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
(2002) Malay – NSM primes, NSM syntax
Goddard, Cliff (2002). Semantic primes and universal grammar in Malay (Bahasa Melayu). In Cliff Goddard, & Anna Wierzbicka (Eds.), Meaning and universal grammar – Theory and empirical findings: Vol. 1 (pp. 87-172). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/slcs.60.10god
My primary goal is to test whether the currently proposed NSM semantic primes have lexical exponents in Malay and whether they can be combined according to the current hypotheses about NSM syntax. Generally speaking the results are positive though I will propose several revisions to our picture of NSM syntax on the basis of the Malay data, at appropriate points in the chapter. Throughout the chapter, I will also try to note alternative polysemic meanings of the various lexical exponents and, where appropriate, the existence of language-specific constructions conveying the kinds of meaning combinations we are interested in. In this way I want to convey a better sense of the individual character of Malay as a language.
Overall, however, the majority of the current NSM proposals do hold up well so far as Malay is concerned. It is now clear that the syntax of the NSM metalanguage has a very rich – and in some ways very complex – texture. It therefore seems particularly intriguing that this rich and detailed texture appears to be shared by languages which are otherwise so different in their structure.
(2002) Malay – Speech act verbs (directives)
Goddard, Cliff (2002). Directive speech acts in Malay (Bahasa Melayu): An ethnopragmatic perspective. Cahiers de praxématique, 38, 113-143.
The focus of the present study is the semantics and ethnopragmatics of a set of Malay speech act verbs. I hope to demonstrate that the lexical-semantic and cultural-pragmatic aspects of the analysis are mutually reinforcing and mutually informative. On the basis of cultural-pragmatic facts, I will discount polysemy for ajak ‘encourage, urge’ and pujuk ‘coax, comfort’, while lexical-semantic analysis of suruh ‘tell to do’ and minta ‘ask for’ will highlight the Malay cultural constraints against explicitly expressing the message ‘I want you to do this’. The conceptual structure and presuppositions of nasihat ‘advice, counsel’ will be shown to be strongly congruent with its characteristic forms of expression. In these and other ways, I hope to show not only that lexical semantics and cultural pragmatics are tightly intertwined in Malay, but also to illustrate the value of an ethnopragmatic approach to speech acts in general.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2003) Malay – TER-
Goddard, Cliff (2003). Dynamic ter– in Malay (Bahasa Melayu): A study in grammatical polysemy. Studies in Language, 27(2), 287-322. DOI: 10.1075/sl.27.2.04god
This paper undertakes a fine-grained semantic analysis of some of the multiple uses of the polyfunctional verbal prefix ter– in Malay (Bahasa Melayu), the national language of Malaysia. The analysis is conducted within the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) framework originated by Anna
Wierzbicka, supported by examples drawn from a large corpus of naturally occuring Malay texts. The main goals are to accurately describe the full range of meanings, and to decide to what extent apparent differences are contextually-induced as opposed to being semantically encoded. In the end, seven
distinct but interrelated lexico-semantic schemas are identified, constituting a network of grammatical polysemy.
(2004) – NSM primes
Goddard, Cliff (2004). The atoms of meaning. IIAS Newsletter, 33, 17. PDF (open access)
Most linguists do not regard semantics (the systematic study of meaning) as a central part of their discipline. This is both strange and sad, because meaning is the link between language and communication, between language and culture, and between language and cognition. Lately, however, meaning-based approaches have been making a comeback within the broad movements known as cognitive linguistics and functional linguistics. This article concentrates on the leading meaning-based theory of language, the Natural Semantic Metalanguage or NSM theory originated by Anna Wierzbicka.
(2004) English – “Active” metaphors
Goddard, Cliff (2004). The ethnopragmatics and semantics of ‘active metaphors’. Journal of Pragmatics, 36(7). 1211-1230. DOI: 10.1016/j.pragma.2003.10.011
“Active” metaphors are a kind of metaphor that can be categorically distinguished from other metaphorical phenomena due to its reliance on “metalexical awareness”, detectable by linguistic tests as well as by intuition. Far from being a natural function of the human mind or a universal of rational communication, active metaphorizing is a culture-specific speech practice that demands explication within an ethnopragmatic perspective. The paper proposes an ethnopragmatic script (a kind of specialized cultural script) for active metaphorizing in English, and dramatizes its culture-specificity by ethnopragmatic case studies of Pitjantjatjara/Yankunytjatjara (central Australia) and Malay. Finally, in relation to English active metaphors, an attempt is made to demonstrate that expository metaphors have determinable meanings that can be stated as extended reductive paraphrases. The analytical framework is the Natural Semantic Metalanguage theory and the associated theory of cultural scripts.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2004) Malay – Speech act verbs (PUJUK)
Goddard, Cliff (2004). Speech-acts, values and cultural scripts: A study in Malay ethnopragmatics. In Robert Cribb (Ed.), Asia examined: Proceedings of the 15th biennial conference of the ASAA. PDF (open access)
The speech act lexicon of any language provides its speakers with a readymade “catalogue” of culture-specific categories of verbal interaction: a catalogue that makes sense within, and is attuned to, a particular portfolio of cultural values, assumptions, and attitudes. So it is that a microscopic examination of the semantics of speech act verbs can shed a great deal of light on broader cultural themes, but equally the significance of any particular speech act category can only be fully understood in broader cultural context.
This study illustrates these contentions with the Malay speech act verb pujuk, which can variously translated as ‘coax’, ‘flatter’, ‘persuade’, or ‘comfort’, but which really has no precise equivalent in English. Naturally occurring examples are given from Bahasa Melayu, the national language of Malaysia. The methods employed are the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) approach, and its companion, the theory of cultural scripts. I propose a single semantic explication for pujuk which accounts for its diverse range with much greater precision than any normal dictionary definition; but the explication must be read against the background of several Malay cultural scripts reflecting the important role of feelings and “feelings management” in the Malay tradition, as reflected in expressions like timbang rasa ‘lit. weigh feelings’, jaga hati orang ‘minding people’s feelings/hearts’, ambil hati ‘lit. get heart, be charming’, among others.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2006) Indonesian – Introduction to NSM
Mulyadi & Siregar, Rumnasari K. (2006). Aplikasi teori Metabahasa Makna Alami dalam kajian makna [Application of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach to the study of meaning]. Logat: Jurnal Ilmiah Bahasa dan Sastra 2(2), 69-75. PDF (open access)
This article describes the Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach and provides illustrations involving Indonesian verbs, nouns, and adjectives. The aim is to explain some of the basic concepts of the theory and some of its research procedures. Semantic properties of a word are explored by means of syntactic and semantic evidence. The illustrations show that the approach can unpack the complex meanings of words that are related semantically to understand their similarities and differences.
(2006) Madurese – Curse words
Indrawati, Dianita (2006). Makian dalam Bahasa Madura: Kajian Metabahasa Semantik Alami [Cursing in Madurese: A Natural Semantic Metalanguage study]. Linguistik Indonesia, 24(2), 145-155.
Abstract:
While the concept of cursing is found in all languages, its verbal expression is unique to each. The verbal expressions of cursing used by a community grow and develop based on the culture of that community. This paper describes the literal meaning and the semantic structure of a number of curse words in Madurese.
More information:
Written in Indonesian.
Rating:
Sound application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
(2006) NSM semantics and Cognitive Linguistics
Goddard, Cliff (2006). Verbal explication and the place of NSM semantics in Cognitive Linguistics. In June Luchjenbroers (Ed.), Cognitive Linguistics investigations: Across languages, fields and philosophical boundaries (pp. 189-218). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/hcp.15.14god
This paper argues that verbal explication has an indispensable role to play in semantic/conceptual representation. The diagrams used within Cognitive Linguistics are not semiotically self-contained and cannot be interpreted without overt or covert verbal support. Many also depend on culture-specific iconography. When verbal representation is employed in mainstream Cognitive Linguistics, as in work on prototypes, cultural models and conceptual metaphor, this is typically done in an under-theorized fashion without adequate attention to the complexity and culture-specificity of the representation. Abstract culture-laden vocabulary also demands a rich propositional style of representation, as shown with contrastive examples from Malay, Japanese and English. As the only stream of Cognitive Linguistics with a well-theorized and empirically grounded approach to verbal explication, the NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) framework has much to offer cognitive linguistics at large.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2006) Tagalog – ‘Anger’
Lorenzana, Angela E. (2006). Galit: The Filipino emotion word for ‘anger’. In Tenth international conference on Austronesian linguistics (10-ICAL). http://www-01.sil.org/asia/philippines/ical/index.html. PDF (open access)
Noteworthy semantic studies have been conducted to explicate anger concepts in different languages. One tool for such cross-cultural comparisons is the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM), a set of 56 indefinable words or semantic primes developed by Anna Wierzbicka over a period of 35 years. Using this tool in analysing emotion concepts through linguistic evidence such as literary excerpts, dialogs and interviews reveals the fact that while emotional universals allegedly exist, emotions are experienced and expressed differently. The use of the semantic primes allows the formulation of a detailed statement (otherwise known as explication) of the elements that compose the meaning or definition of a complex word. Semantic explications for anger words in different languages reveal marked differences in their causes, management and expression. For instance, emotion words for anger such as the Anglo-Saxon anger, the Ifaluk song, the Chinese nu or the Polish gniew were found to be different from the Filipino word galit. Using NSM as a common measure or tertium comparationis, one can correctly and meaningfully compare as many different languages as possible.
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
(2007) English, Korean, Malay, Swedish – Mental states
Goddard, Cliff (2007). A culture-neutral metalanguage for mental state concepts. In Andrea C. Schalley, & Drew Khlentzos (Eds.), Mental states: Vol. 2. Language and cognitive structure (pp. 11-35). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.93.04god
Abstract:
In contemporary cognitive science, mental state concepts from diverse cultures are typically described via English-specific words for emotions, cognitive processes, and the like. This is terminological ethnocentrism, which produces inaccurate representations of indigenous meanings. The problem can be overcome by employing a metalanguage of conceptual analysis based on simple meanings such as KNOW, THINK, WANT and FEEL. Cross-linguistic semantic research suggests that these and other semantic primes are shared across all languages and cultures. After summarizing this research, the chapter shows how complex mental state concepts from English, Malay, Swedish, and Korean can be revealingly analysed into terms that are simple, clear and transposable across languages.
Rating:
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2007) Indonesian – NSM primes, language learning
Arnawa, Nengah (2007). Semantik universal dan pembelajaran bahasa: Studi kasus pada anak-anak usia 4-6 tahun [Universal semantics and language learning: A case study of children aged 4-6]. Widyadari, 4, 14-23. PDF (open access)
Language learning theory suggests that learning materials should be designed at a higher level than the linguistic competencies of learners. To implement this idea, a description of children’s language is needed. One instrument that can be used to describe children’s language is the Natural Semantic Metalanguage, which includes in its lexicon a set of universal meanings (semantic primes) that exist in spite of the variability of human cultures. These meanings are the first to be mastered by children acquiring their first language. Combining the semantic primes in accordance with the morphosyntactic rules of a language produces canonical sentences. Canonical sentences produced by children can be used as a basis for composing language learning materials.
This paper is about language acquisition and language learning. It does not contain any explications or scripts. No rating is provided.
