Wierzbicka, Anna (1976). Particles and linguistic relativity. International Review of Slavic Linguistics, 1(2/3), 327-367.
(1979) English – Connective particles
Goddard, Cliff (1979). Particles and illocutionary semantics. Paper in Linguistics, 12(1-2), 185-229. DOI: 10.1080/08351817909370468
The aim of this paper is to come up with a semantic analysis of a number of English connective particles, including those usually referred to as “concessive” and “quasi-causal”. A semantic theory on the nature and representation of speech acts is argued to be a necessary preliminary to the semantic analysis of particles and other connectives. The paper seeks to discern the outlines of such an “illocutionary semantics”. The hypothesis that emerges is that particles are used as exponents of illocutionary force. Semantic representations for although, but, however, then and since are then developed on the basis of their role as exponents of illocutionary force.
(1986) Arrernte – Particles/clitics (criticism and complaint)
Wilkins, David P. (1986). Particles/clitics for criticism and complaint in Mparntwe Arrernte (Aranda). Journal of Pragmatics, 10(5), 575-596. DOI: 10.1016/0378-2166(86)90015-9
This paper examines a set of five particle/clitics which are used for criticizing and complaining in Mparntwe Arrernte (Aranda) – a Central Australian Aboriginal language. It describes how the illocutionary force of criticism and/or complaint achieved by each particle/clitic is a function of their meaning, culture-specific pragmatics, and both the linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts of use. The value of natural language definition is demonstrated through practical application. It is also argued that conversational implicatures may be conventional and, further, that such conventional implicatures can be semantically explicated. The meaning of the implicature is generated as part of an utterance by regular pragmatic rules.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(1986) English, Polish – Quantitative particles
Wierzbicka, Anna (1986). *The semantics of quantitative particles in Polish and in English. In Andrzej Bogusławski, & Božena Bojar (Eds.), Od kodu do kodu (pp. 175-189). Warsaw: PanÚstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
A more recent publication building on this one is chapter 9 (pp. 341-389) of:
Wierzbicka, Anna (1991, 2003). Cross-cultural pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
(1986) Ewe – Particles
Ameka, Felix Kofi (1986). The use and meaning of selected particles in Ewe. MA thesis, Australian National University.
When studying particles – regardless of the language they belong to – it is not enough to describe their distribution and to provide labels. We must go beyond descriptions and, in an attempt to come up with a reliable guide to usage, elucidate the meanings encapsulated in the particles, in a manner that is linguistically precise and as far as permissible culturally and socially revealing. This is the task undertaken in this study, with special reference to the author’s native language, Ewe.
We describe and defend an illocutionary semantic approach to the particles. In essence, we advocate a method of analysis that decomposes the illocutionary forces of particles into their components, which are expressed in a language that is simple and intuitively intelligible. The test for our analysis is that the formulations (explications) should be substitutable for the particles (salvo sensu) in any of their possible uses.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(1986) Particles
Wierzbicka, Anna (Ed.) (1986). Particles. Journal of Pragmatics, 10(5) (Special issue).
(1986) Warlpiri – Particles
Harkins, Jean (1986). Semantics and the language learner: Warlpiri particles. Journal of Pragmatics, 10(5), 559-574. DOI: 10.1016/0378-2166(86)90014-7
Particles in Australian Aboriginal languages play a crucial role in conveying complex semantic and pragmatic information, posing some seemingly intractable problems for both the descriptive linguist and the language learner. Looking at some Warlpiri particles used for disclaiming authorship, expressing certainty, casting doubt, limiting an assertion, and suggesting something different, this paper attempts to show how a careful semantic analysis might lead to the formulation of descriptions sufficiently clear and explicit to be of practical use. It is argued that hypotheses as to meaning must be stated explicitly in order that they may be verified, or modified as necessary.
(1990-91) Ewe – Discourse particles: LÁ, ƉÉ
Ameka, Felix (1990-91). How discourse particles mean: The case of the Ewe “terminal” particles. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics, 12(2), 143-170. DOI: 10.1515_jall.1991.12.2.143
The main claims of this paper are that particles have meanings and that these meanings can be discovered and stated in a linguistically precise manner. Discourse particles, in particular, have meanings in addition to the syntactic, discourse and communicative functions in terms of which they are usually described. It is argued that the syntactic and discourse functional levels should be augmented by a semantic explication of the particles that would constitute a reliable guide to their usage.
The claims are tested and supported through an analysis of the Ewe particles lá and ɖé. These particles have been characterized as phrase and clause terminal particles because they occur at the end of preposed dependent phrases and clauses and at the end of embedded relative clauses. The author contends that the particles have a unitary function: they mark a piece of discourse as forming the conceptual background to the rest, or part of the rest, of an utterance or discourse. Semantic representations couched in a Natural Semantic Metalanguage of hypothetical universal primitives are proposed for the various senses of the particles, which can explain the similarities and differences in their range of use. The paper concludes with a discussion of some cross-linguistic analogues of the Ewe particles.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(1994) English (Singapore) – Particles
Wong, Jock (1994). A Wierzbickan approach to Singlish particles. MA thesis, National University of Singapore.
(2000) English (Singapore) – ME, MEH
Wong, Jock Onn (2000). The ‘mE’ particle of Singlish. National University of Singapore Centre for Advanced Studies Research Papers Series, 18, 25 pp.
The non-standard variety of Singapore English commonly known as Singlish has a set of particles the meanings of which have intrigued and also evaded many researchers. These researchers have described the meanings of the particles mostly with a functional approach, in which the functions of a particle under study are listed, and the meaning of the particle characterized in terms of these functions. Results have proved futile. In this paper, the meaning of the Singlish particle ‘mE’ (commonly spelt ‘meh’ elsewhere) is described using the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) approach, which involves corpus study, native speaker introspection, and a reductive paraphrase using semantic primitives to represent the invariant meaning. With this semantic model, the meaning of ‘mE’ can be clearly, precisely, and unambiguously stated in simple English. The semantic formula is shown to be applicable to all instances of use, thus achieving empirical adequacy.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2001) English (Singapore) – Particles (A)
Wong, Jock Onn (2001). To speak or not to speak? The ‘a’ particles of Singlish. National University of Singapore Centre for Advanced Studies Research Papers Series, 37, 33 pp.
A more recent publication building on parts of this one is chapter 7 (pp. 230-259) of:
Wong, Jock O. (2014). The culture of Singapore English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139519519
(2001) Malay – Focus particles (PUN)
Goddard, Cliff (2001). The polyfunctional Malay focus particle pun. Multilingua, 20(1), 27-59. DOI: 10.1515/multi.2001.002
This is a study of the usage and semantics of the focus particle pun in contemporary Malay (Bahasa Melayu), the national language of Malaysia. Drawing on a sizeable corpus of naturally occurring textual examples, I propose a small set of semantic explications for pun, within the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) framework. The polyfunctionality of pun, and its diverse range of translation equivalents and effects, is shown to be attributable partly to polysemy and partly to the operation of contextual inference.
(2003) English (Singapore) – Discourse particles: LAH
Besemeres, Mary & Wierzbicka, Anna (2003). Pragmatics and cognition: The meaning of the particle lah in Singapore English. Pragmatics & Cognition, 11(1), 3-38. DOI: 10.1075/pc.11.1.03bes
This paper tries to crack one of the hardest and most intriguing chestnuts in the field of cross-cultural pragmatics and to identify the meaning of the celebrated Singaporean particle lah, the hallmark of Singapore English. In pursuing this goal, the authors investigate the use of lah and seek to identify its meaning by trying to find a paraphrase in ordinary language that would be substitutable for lah in any context. In doing so, they try to enter the speakers’ minds, and as John Locke urged in his pioneering work on particles, published in 1691, “observe nicely” the speakers’ “postures of the mind in discoursing”. At the same time, they offer a general model for the investigation of discourse markers and show how the methodology based on the NSM semantic theory allows the analyst to link pragmatics, via semantics, with the study of cognition.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2004) English (Singapore) – Particles
Wong, Jock (2004). The particles of Singapore English: A semantic and cultural interpretation. Journal of Pragmatics, 36(9), 739-793. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-2166(03)00070-5
A more recent publication building on parts of this one is chapter 7 (pp. 230-259) of:
Wong, Jock O. (2014). The culture of Singapore English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139519519
Particles constitute one of the most distinctive features of the cultural dialect known as Singapore English. They are highly interactive and play a major role in the integrity and cohesiveness of the Singapore English speech community, offering invaluable insights into Singapore culture. Their semantic study could therefore pave the way for a better understanding of this culture.
The present study investigates the meanings of several particles in Singapore English: three particles la which come in different lexical tones (but are otherwise homophones), the particle wut (commonly spelt as what), and the particle meh. The meaning of each of these particles is stated in the form of a reductive paraphrase couched in simple and universal human concepts so that it can be readily understood by both insiders and cultural outsiders.
The study shows that Singapore English particles are loaded with interactional or pragmatic meanings. It also suggests that the high frequency of use of some particles, including wut and the particles la, is motivated by a cultural norm of interaction.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2005) English (Singapore) – Particles (ONE)
Wong, Jock (2005). “Why you so Singlish one?” A semantic and cultural interpretation of the Singapore English particle one. Language in Society, 34, 239-275. DOI: 10.1017/S0047404505050104
A more recent publication building on this one is chapter 6 (pp. 180-229) of:
Wong, Jock O. (2014). The culture of Singapore English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139519519
The particle one of Singapore English is widely used in Singapore culture, but it is little mentioned and its invariant meaning has not been described, so that not much is known about its meaning and the cultural norms it reflects. This article provides a detailed semantic analysis of this particle, articulates its meaning in the form of a reductive paraphrase using Natural Semantic Metalanguage, and argues that its use reflects Singapore English speakers’ tendency to speak definitively and exaggeratedly. The discussion of Singaporean speech norms reflected by this particle includes reference to relevant Anglo English speech norms for comparison and contrast.
(2005) Spanish (Colombia) – Discourse particles: BUENO, PUES, O SEA, ENTONCES
Travis, Catherine E. (2005). Discourse markers in Colombian Spanish: A study in polysemy. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
This book, a revised version of the author’s PhD thesis (Latrobe University, Melbourne, 2001) presents a semantic analysis of a set of four functionally related discourse particles that are particularly frequent in conversational Colombian Spanish. A corpus of four hours of spontaneous conversation is used to study the markers bueno ‘well, OK’, pues ‘well, then’, o sea ‘I mean, that is to say’ and entonces ‘so, then’.
Through a detailed analysis of numerous examples drawn from the corpus, and employing both quantitative and qualitative techniques, it is demonstrated that, contrary to popular belief, discourse particles are not just functional particles with indeterminate or context-based semantics. Rather, they have inherent meanings that can be identified and exhaustively defined with an appropriate semantic methodology, such as is provided by the Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach. This study illustrates that this approach, which has been widely applied to the semantics of the lexicon and the grammar, can be extended to the semantics of discourse-based features, supporting the notion that meaning of all aspects of language forms one semantic system. The author proposes four different meanings for bueno, three related meanings for o sea, three core meanings for entonces, and two-way polysemy for pues.
The research reported here also has implications for the study of polysemy, in that it operationalizes the little understood, but classical definition of polysemy of items with “a shared element of meaning”, and it demonstrates that the polysemous relations of discourse markers are centered around an invariant core that can be identified on the basis of their use in discourse. As one of the first corpus-based studies to present a semantic account of the multifunctional nature of discourse markers this book makes an important contribution to research on the relationship between semantics and discourse-pragmatics, and polysemy in discourse.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2006) Chinese (Mandarin, Singapore) – Particles (LEH)
黄囗盈 [Wong, Suet Ying] (2006). 新加坡华语会话中的语气词’leh’之硏究 [The ‘leh’ Particle in Singapore Mandarin]. BA(Hons) thesis. Singapore: National University of Singapore.
The abundant usage of particles in conversation is one of the most distinctive features of Singapore linguistic culture. It is typical for the conversations of Singaporeans to be littered with particles, whether they are speaking in English or Mandarin. These particles are loaded with pragmatic meanings. Many studies have been carried out throughout the years to explicate the meanings and functions they carry. However, the usage of such particles in conversation often makes no sense to foreigners.
Moreover, most studies have investigated the usage of particles in the context of Singapore English (Singlish) conversation, but are oblivious to the fact that the phenomenon is equally significant in Singapore Mandarin conversation.
This study looks at the particle leh in Singapore Mandarin conversation. Its aim is to investigate the inherent meaning of leh within the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) framework, as well as the functions that come with the different lexical tones of leh, using data from natural conversation. Lastly, the phonetic changes of leh in Singapore Mandarin are also examined.
(2006) Spanish (Colombia) – Discourse particles: BUENO
Travis, Catherine E. (2006). The Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach to discourse markers. In Kerstin Fischer (Ed.), Approaches to discourse particles (pp. 219-241). Oxford: Elsevier.
This paper presents an analysis of discourse markers based within the framework of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (Wierzbicka, 1996; and references therein). It argues that discourse markers can only be fully understood if the meaning(s) they carry when used in different contexts are exhaustively defined. Within this framework, discourse markers are treated as polysemous, having a range of different meanings all of which share some element in common. The shared element of meaning can be considered a partial semantic invariant, and it is this that ties the uses of the marker together, while other components of meaning that differ account for the variation across the range of use. Such an analysis makes a clear distinction between what is encoded in the semantics of the marker and what is encoded in its pragmatics of use. I will illustrate how this can be done through an analysis of the Spanish discourse marker bueno (‘well’, ‘good’, ‘right’), based on a corpus of conversational Colombian Spanish.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2007) French – Discourse particles: BEN, VOILÀ, QUOI
Waters, Sophia (2007). “Ben, voilà, quoi”: les significations et les emplois des particules énonciatives en français parlé [“Ben, voilà, quoi”: The meanings and uses of discourse particles in spoken French]. BA(Hons) thesis, University of New England, Armidale.
Written in French.
The aim of this thesis is to extract the meanings of three French utterance particles, used in the spoken language, viz. quoi, voilà and ben. The author relies on authentic examples to describe the use of each. The tool used to this end is the Natural Semantic Metalanguage, which allows us to make explications accessible both to speakers of French and to those for whom French is a second language.
The author also emphasizes the importance of a thorough understanding of the particles of a language.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
(2010) Chinese (Cantonese) – Discourse particles
Wakefield, John C. (2010). The English equivalents of Cantonese sentence-final particles: A contrastive analysis. PhD thesis, Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Abstract:
Cantonese has a lexical tone system that severely restricts its ability to manipulate pitch. As a result, many of the speaker-oriented discourse meanings that are expressed through intonation in languages such as English are expressed in the form of sentence-final particles (SFPs) in Cantonese. Although this is widely known and accepted by linguists, apparently no study to date has made a systematic attempt to discover whether any of the more than 30 Cantonese SFPs have English intonational equivalents, and if so, what those equivalents are. To work towards filling this research gap, this study examines the English intonational equivalents of four Cantonese SFPs that divide into the following two pairs: particles of obviousness: 咯 lo1 and 吖吗 aa1maa3; question particles: 咩 me1 and 呀 aa4.
The English equivalent form of each of the four SFPs of this study is identified by examining the pitch contours of Cantonese-to-English audio translations, provided by Cantonese/English native-bilingual participants. A definition using Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) is proposed for each SFP, which is hypothesized to apply equally to its English intonational counterpart. Following earlier proposals by Hirst regarding emphatic intonation, these pitch contours are proposed to be floating tones that exist as lexical entries in the minds of native speakers of English. Syntactic positions are proposed for the SFPs and their English equivalents adopting Rizzi‘s split-CP hypothesis.
The findings of this study have far reaching implications regarding the descriptions and classifications of intonation, as well as regarding the classifications of the various forms of suprasegmentals. This study used segmental discourse markers to discover their suprasegmental counterparts in English, exploiting a unique window through which to examine the forms and meanings of English discourse intonation, which is one of the least understood and most difficult to study aspects of English. This research has arguably provided the strongest and clearest evidence to date regarding the forms and meanings of the particular forms of English intonation with which it deals.
Rating:
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
