A resource base of publications using the Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach. 1,100+ detailed notices, and counting!
Wierzbicka, Anna (2007). ‘Reasonable man’ and ‘reasonable doubt’: The English language, Anglo culture and Anglo-American law. International Journal of Speech Language and the Law, 10(1), 1-22.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Peeters, Bert (2007). Australian perceptions of the weekend: Evidence from collocations and elsewhere. In Paul Skandera (Ed.), Phraseology and culture in English (pp. 79-107). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI: 10.1515/9783110197860.79
Goddard, Cliff & Wierzbicka, Anna (2007). NSM analyses of the semantics of physical qualities: sweet, hot, hard, heavy, rough, sharp in cross-linguistic perspective. Studies in Language, 31(4), 765-800.
DOI: 10.1075/sl.31.4.03god
Abstract:
All languages have words such as English hot and cold, hard and soft, rough and smooth, and heavy and light, which attribute qualities to things. This paper maps out how such descriptors can be analysed in the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) framework, in terms of like and other semantic primes configured into a particular “semantic schema”: essentially, touching something with a part of the body, feeling something in that part, knowing something about that thing because of it, and thinking about that thing in a certain way because of it. Far from representing objective properties of things “as such”, it emerges that physical quality concepts refer to embodied human experiences and embodied human sensations. Comparisons with French, Polish and Korean show that the semantics of such words may differ significantly from language to language.
More information:
A more recent publication building on this one is chapter 3 (pp. 55-79) of:
Goddard, Cliff & Wierzbicka, Anna (2014). Words and meanings: Lexical semantics across domains, languages, and cultures. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
The term schema, used in the 2007 version of the text, refers to what has since been called a semantic template.
Rating:
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Goddard, Cliff (2007). A culture-neutral metalanguage for mental state concepts. In Andrea C. Schalley, & Drew Khlentzos (Eds.), Mental states: Vol. 2. Language and cognitive structure (pp. 11-35). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.93.04god
Abstract:
In contemporary cognitive science, mental state concepts from diverse cultures are typically described via English-specific words for emotions, cognitive processes, and the like. This is terminological ethnocentrism, which produces inaccurate representations of indigenous meanings. The problem can be overcome by employing a metalanguage of conceptual analysis based on simple meanings such as KNOW, THINK, WANT and FEEL. Cross-linguistic semantic research suggests that these and other semantic primes are shared across all languages and cultures. After summarizing this research, the chapter shows how complex mental state concepts from English, Malay, Swedish, and Korean can be revealingly analysed into terms that are simple, clear and transposable across languages.
Rating:
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Wierzbicka, Anna (2007). Is “remember” a universal human concept? “Memory” and culture. In Mengistu Amberber (Ed.), The language of memory in a cross-linguistic perspective (pp. 13-39). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/hcp.21.04wie
Abstract:
This paper argues that ‘remembering’ is not a universal human concept but a cultural construct, shared by some languages but not others. It also shows that culture-specific concepts like ‘remember’ and ‘memory’ can be explained and compared through genuinely elementary and universal NSM notions such as KNOW, THINK and BEFORE. To illustrate these general themes, the paper offers a detailed analysis of the Polish field of ‘memory’, linking Polish semantics with Polish history and culture.
Rating:
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Goddard, Cliff, & Anna Wierzbicka (2007). Semantic primes and cultural scripts in language learning and intercultural communication. In Farzad Sharifian, & Gary B. Palmer (Eds.), Applied cultural linguistics: Implications for second language learning and intercultural communication (pp. 105-124). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
DOI: 10.1075/celcr.7.08god
Abstract:
This chapter illustrates a number of potential practical applications of the NSM approach: as a guide to core vocabulary in the early L2 syllabus, as a means of writing cultural scripts and interpreting cultural key words for language learners, and as the basis for a culture-neutral international auxiliary language. Illustrative material is drawn from English, Russian, and Korean.
Rating:
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Moonan, Robert John (2007). A cultural script analysis of an English-Thai bilingual speaker’s nominative usage of mommy in English yes/no question formation. PhD thesis, University of South Carolina.
Each culture has its own specific linguistic norms, values, and practices. To avoid any ethnocentric bias in the attempt to capture these linguistic norms, values, practices, Cultural Script Theory proposes the use of Natural Semantic Metalanguage in describing the linguistic practices of a specific culture. Natural Semantic Metalanguage consists of semantic primitives, words whose meaning cannot be reduced any further. These semantic primitives, of which there are currently over sixty, provide the tools to illustrate the grammatical structures and to capture the pragmatic meaning within the world’s languages.
This dissertation uses the theoretical and methodological frameworks of Cultural Script Theory to analyse the speech practices of a Thai-American woman, whom I refer to as Lucy, who is English-Thai bilingual and bicultural. Specifically, I examine Lucy’s choice of referring expressions in her construction of yes/no questions in two sets of data. The first set of data is a conversation between Lucy and her mother, a native speaker of Thai. The second set of data is a conversation between Lucy and her mother-in-law, a native speaker of English. The analysis consists of three steps. First, I provide semantic explications of the Thai terms of address แม่ mâe ‘mother’ and แม่ mâe ‘an older woman’. Additionally, I provide semantic explications of the English terms of address mother, ma’am, mrs. last name, miss first name, and first name and the English speech act verbs ask and inquire. Second, I construct Thai cultural scripts for แม่ mâe ‘mother’ and แม่ mâe ‘an older woman’ and Anglo-American cultural scripts for the use of the aforementioned English terms of address. Lastly, I use those explications and cultural scripts to help provide a discourse analysis of the two sets of data.
In this dissertation I hypothesize that the distinctive linguistic behavior of Lucy is explained by her use of two different cultural scripts, one based on Anglo-American cultural speaking practices and the other based on Thai cultural speaking practices.
Sound application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
Goddard, Cliff (2007). A response to N. J. Enfield’s review of Ethnopragmatics (Goddard, ed. 2006). Intercultural Pragmatics, 4(4), 531-538. DOI: 10.1515/IP.2007.027
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Wierzbicka, Anna (2007). Reasonably well: Natural Semantic Metalanguage as a tool for the study of phraseology and its cultural underpinnings. In Paul Skandera (Ed.), Phraseology and culture in English (pp. 49-78). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. DOI: 10.1515/9783110197860.49
No abstract available.
de la Cruz Cabanillas, Isabel (2007). Semantic primes in Old English: A preliminary study of descriptors. Selim, 14, 37-58.
The aim of this paper, which contains no explications, is to apply the methodology of semantic primes to Old English to check whether it represents a suitable theoretical and methodological framework for the lexical and semantic study of this period. It consists of a preliminary analysis of the semantic primes grouped as Descriptors: BIG/SMALL. The group is discussed taking into account a sample of texts provided by the Helsinki Corpus of English Texts and supplemented by the information contained in the Dictionary of Old English Corpus. The main sources of information on Old English definitions are A Thesaurus of Old English by Roberts and Kay (1995) and A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary by Clark Hall (1931). The article attempts at being just a first approach to the topic, which could be further developed and extended to other semantic categories.
Wierzbicka, Anna (2007). Shape and colour in language and thought. In Andrea C. Schalley, & Drew Khlentzos (Eds.), Mental states: Vol. 2. Language and cognitive structure (pp. 37-60). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/slcs.93.05wie
“Colour” and “shape” are concepts important to the speakers of English and of many other languages. They are not, however, universal: there are many languages which have no words corresponding to the English words colour and shape, and in which questions like “what colour is it?” or “what shape is it?” cannot be asked at all. Clearly, speakers of such languages do not think about the world in terms of “colour” and “shape”. How do they think about it, then?
This study shows that by using an empirically discovered set of universal semantic primes which includes see and touch we can effectively explore ways of construal of the visual and tangible world different from those embedded in, and encouraged by, English.
Sun, Gui-Li, & Hsieh, Ching-Yu (2008). Three emotional adverbs in Mandarin Chinese: An application of Natural Semantic Metalanguage. Feng Chia Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 17, 121-139. PDF (open access)
Emotional adverbs are usually difficult for non-native speakers to comprehend. They belong to a category of function words that are not easily defined and that appear to be semantically empty. Few researchers have explored them. This study examines the emotional adverbs 明明 mingming, 萬萬 wanwan and 簡直 jianzhi by means of the NSM approach. The data for the study was mostly selected from the Academia Sinica Balanced Corpus of Modern Chinese, and from conversations among junior high school students.
The result shows that each of the adverbs has different implications and can be used in certain specific situations. For example, 明明 mingming is used to express negative emotions like disaffection or anger, while 萬萬 wanwan can be used to show speakers’ positive and negative feelings, although it is used only in negative sentences. 簡直 jianzhi is usually followed by a metaphor or simile and implies a complaint and incredibility. The underlying cognition of the three emotional adverbs is revealed by an analysis of explications.
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
Koselak, Arkadiusz (2008). Cette personne a quelque chose que je n’ai pas: une approche contrastive de réactions du type de jalousie [This person has something I do not have: A contrastive approach of jealousy-type reactions]. In Jacques Durand, Benoît Habert & Bernard Laks (Eds.), CMLF 2008 – Congrès mondial de linguistique française (pp. 2085-2100). Paris: EDP Sciences. DOI: 10.1051/cmlf08050. PDF (open access)
Written in French.
The author analyses the French words jalousie ‘jealousy’ and envie ‘envy’ as well as some of their counterparts in Polish, Swedish, German and English. The aim of this Wierzbickian inspired study is to discover differences in conceptualization and to present them schematically.
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
Stollznow, Karen (2008). Dehumanisation in language and thought. Journal of Language and Politics, 7(2), 177-200. DOI: 10.1075/jlp.7.2.01sto
Dehumanization is a central tool of propaganda, war and oppression, but could it also be an everyday phenomenon? This paper attempts to demonstrate that dehumanization is not invariably deviant behaviour, but that it is often grounded in normal cognition. Dehumanization is often defined as ‘to make less human’ (Encarta) or ‘to deprive of human character’ (Oxford English Dictionary). Are these adequate definitions? Is there evidence of polysemy, and a more salient sense? How can we explain the meaning and enactment of this process? This paper investigates the linguistic and behavioural representation of dehumanization, with reference to modern and historical events. This semantic analysis considers aspects of pragmatics, semiotics, cognition and metaphor. The framework used in this examination is the Natural Semantic Metalanguage method of reductive paraphrase.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Alexander, Dennis Colin (2008). Literal, figurative, abstract: A semantic investigation into literal meanings and metaphorical uses of English game and play. PhD thesis, University of New England.
This thesis is an investigation into the semantics of abstract words and figurative language. Prompted in part by the claims of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson that abstract concepts are fleshed out by systems of conceptual metaphors, this investigation finds that there is no semantic deficiency in the meaning of the abstract expressions game and play that necessitates augmentation with metaphorical meaning.
The introduction of the thesis sets the scene for the investigation in the diverse literature on meaning, metaphor, and abstraction. It also describes the main tool of semantic analysis used in the investigation, the Natural Semantic Metalanguage developed by Anna Wierzbicka. The central chapters explicate in detail the literal and figurative meaning respectively of selected senses of game and play based on examples drawn from the Australian Corpus of English and WordBanks. The literal explications are applied to explicate the metaphors business is a game, life is a game, and doing business is playing. A tripartite schema for explications of metaphors is adapted and formalized from one developed by Cliff Goddard. This schema embodies the literal meanings of the topic and vehicle terms and a metaphoric dictum relating them in the specific context of use. Explications in this schema provide a description of, and insight into, the meaning of these and other metaphors. It is argued that this mode of presentation satisfies a range of linguistic and psycholinguistic constraints.
The abstract concepts of game and play are shown to be more than mere skeletons in need of fleshing out by conceptual metaphors. Indeed, in and of themselves game and play act as vehicles (source domains) for metaphors on business, life and doing business. Out of these explications, analyses and discussions emerges a clear and coherent demonstration of the central role of the lexically encoded literal meanings of the topic (target) and vehicle (source) terms in understanding the contextualized meaning of a specific metaphor. While other scholars have tacitly or expressly acknowledged this priority, this thesis represents the first substantial demonstration of this priority using naturally occurring examples and a rigorous method of explication with a constrained metalanguage. It also suggests some accepted psycholinguistic approaches that can be used to test these hypotheses.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Sibly, Anne (2008). The semantics of physical contact verbs: lexicographic sketches of caress, fondle, hit, kick, kiss, punch, slap, smack, stroke and touch. BA(Hons) thesis, Australian National University.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Wong, Jock (2008). Anglo English and Singapore English tags: Their meanings and cultural significance. Pragmatics & Cognition, 16(1), 88-117. DOI: 10.1075/p&c.16.1.06won
A more recent publication building on this one is chapter 6 (pp. 180-229) of:
Wong, Jock O. (2014). The culture of Singapore English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139519519
This study investigates a few Anglo English and Singapore English tags. The focus is on their meaning and the ways of thinking they reflect, rather than their forms and functions. The study contrasts the so-called Anglo English tag questions and the Singapore English tag is it? and tries to show that their semantic and pragmatic differences relate to differences in ways of thinking in the two cultures. For the purposes of this research, meaning is articulated in a paraphrase couched in Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM), which comprises a set of empirically established semantic primes and a universal grammar.
Bartolo, Kay Frances (2008). ‘Bogan’: Polite or not? Cultural implications of a term in Australian slang. Griffith Working Papers in Pragmatics and Intercultural Communication, 1(1), 7-20. PDF (open access)
Although changes in the usage of words in English are emerging through globalisation and travel, Australian slang has kept its strong ties to Australian culture. The main aim of this research was to look at the term ‘bogan’, whether it is used in a derogatory way in Australian English, and what effects culture can have on its use and acceptance. Research was conducted using a small corpus built of Australian slang and data taken from ethno‐pragmatic interviews with Australian‐born native speakers of English. It was concluded from the research that the term can be used both negatively, as a negative comment or impolite projection of a social identity onto a person who does not identify themselves within that classification by the older generation, and positively, as a sign of solidarity or a compliment amongst members of the same in‐group by the younger generation. The factors found to affect the result of the use of this term are the cultural stereotype that the user attaches to the meaning and the cultural understanding of the listener.
Peeters, Bert (2008). Ça va? vs How are you? Remarques ethnophraséologiques [Ça va? vs How are you? Ethnophraseological notes]. Synergies-RUI, 1, 101-118.
Kim, Heesoo (2008). The semantic and pragmatic analysis of South Korean and Australian English apology speech acts. Journal of Pragmatics, 40, 257-278.
DOI: https://doi.org.10.1016/j.pragma.2007.11.003
Abstract:
The aim of this study is to undertake a semantic and pragmatic analysis of South Korean apology speech acts, in particular with respect to how South Korean apologetic speech act expressions differ conceptually from Australian English expressions of apology. NSM is used to clarify how the main South Korean apologetic speech act expression mianhada differs conceptually from Australian English sorry; in the process, some distinctive features of South Korean culture are illustrated. South Korean apology speech act strategies are investigated in seven situations; this investigation is modeled on the work of Blum-Kulka and collaborators.
The findings of this study are that the attitudinal meanings of mianhada and sorry, as well as the range of illocutionary acts associated with the two expressions, are different. Decomposing mianhada and sorry into their illocutionary components provides a fine-grained description of what are assumed to be the attitudes and states of mind of South Koreans and Australians, respectively, when performing an apology. The study further suggests that conceptualizing speech act expressions through the use of semantically simple words may help second language learners acquire the proper ways of carrying out speech acts (including non-verbal expressions) in the target language and culture.
More information:
For a different analysis, see:
Yu, Kyong-Ae (2017). Perceptions and functions of Korean mianhada: comparison with American English sorry. The Sociolinguistic Journal of Korea, 25(2), 197-224.
Rating:
Crude application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
|
Crude application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner |
|
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner |
|
Sound application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner |
|
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners |
|
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners |