A resource base of publications using the Natural Semantic Metalanguage approach. 1,100+ detailed notices, and counting!
Kornacki, Paweł (2003). Scripts of face – Chinese concepts of mianzi and lian from the Natural Semantic Metalanguage perspective. In Ewa Mioduszewska (Ed.), Relevance studies in Poland: Volume 1 (pp. 349-383). Warszawa: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Knight, Emily (2008). Hyperpolysemy in Bunuba, a polysynthetic language of the Kimberley, Western Australia. In Cliff Goddard (Ed.), Cross-linguistic semantics (pp. 205-223). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/slcs.102.13kni
Like a number of other Kimberley languages, Bunuba has very few morphologically simple verbs. Most verbs (including exponents of some semantic primes, such as WANT, SEE, and THERE IS) consist of an inflected auxiliary combined with an invariable coverb. After a brief review of how other predicate primes are expressed in Bunuba, the main body of the chapter considers semantic primes SAY, DO, THINK, HAPPEN, and FEEL, which, it is argued, are all expressed by a single, morphologically simple Bunuba verb MA. Detailed language-internal evidence is adduced to support the existence of this striking five-way polysemy. It is shown that each of the five identifiable lexical units has a distinctive syntactic/semantic profile. These facts are incompatible with alternative analyses which posit a single general abstract meaning.
Klages, Monika, & Römer, Ute (2002). Translating modal meanings in the EFL classroom. In Sybil Scholz, Monika Klages, Evelyn Hantson, & Ute Römer (Eds.), Language: Context and cognition. Papers in honour of Wolf-Dietrich Bald’s 60th birthday (pp. 201-216). München: Langenscheidt-Longman.
In this paper we will argue that the difficulties EFL learners encounter with respect to modal verbs in English are at least partially due to the learners’ limited access to the cultural values encoded in the descriptive labels used in the traditional paraphrases. On the basis of Anna Wierzbicka’s system of semantic primitives (e.g. 1972, 1992, 1996) we present alternative forms of paraphrases. We will start from the widely shared assumption that speech acts, i.e. (at least) their felicity and appropriateness conditions differ between cultures and that these differences correspond to different cultural norms which in turn are – to some extent – reflected in the language spoken. While Wierzbicka’s Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) on the whole is sometimes criticized for its reductionism, its language-like conceptual system certainly provides a possible approximation to a culture-free metalanguage. We will provide examples which show that within limits it is possible to paraphrase modal notions by means of NSM.
Our discussion of the different meanings of the modals under investigation (can, may, will, shall, and must) will be based on real data, i.e. on actual occurrences of the modal verbs in the context of natural discourse. We see NSM paraphrases not only as useful points of departure for the teaching and learning of culture-based modal meanings and functions in the EFL classroom but also as a means to account for learner problems resulting from an overrepresentation of deontic modality in English textbooks. In the final section of this paper we will therefore suggest how taking into consideration the cultural concepts encoded in the use of modal auxiliaries may improve the teaching and learning success.
Kim, Heesoo (2008). The semantic and pragmatic analysis of South Korean and Australian English apology speech acts. Journal of Pragmatics, 40, 257-278.
DOI: https://doi.org.10.1016/j.pragma.2007.11.003
Abstract:
The aim of this study is to undertake a semantic and pragmatic analysis of South Korean apology speech acts, in particular with respect to how South Korean apologetic speech act expressions differ conceptually from Australian English expressions of apology. NSM is used to clarify how the main South Korean apologetic speech act expression mianhada differs conceptually from Australian English sorry; in the process, some distinctive features of South Korean culture are illustrated. South Korean apology speech act strategies are investigated in seven situations; this investigation is modeled on the work of Blum-Kulka and collaborators.
The findings of this study are that the attitudinal meanings of mianhada and sorry, as well as the range of illocutionary acts associated with the two expressions, are different. Decomposing mianhada and sorry into their illocutionary components provides a fine-grained description of what are assumed to be the attitudes and states of mind of South Koreans and Australians, respectively, when performing an apology. The study further suggests that conceptualizing speech act expressions through the use of semantically simple words may help second language learners acquire the proper ways of carrying out speech acts (including non-verbal expressions) in the target language and culture.
More information:
For a different analysis, see:
Yu, Kyong-Ae (2017). Perceptions and functions of Korean mianhada: comparison with American English sorry. The Sociolinguistic Journal of Korea, 25(2), 197-224.
Rating:
Crude application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
Kidman, Angus (1993). How to do things with four-letter words: A study of the semantics of swearing in Australia. BA(Hons) thesis, University of New England. HTML (open access)
This thesis presents and defends semantic explications for a number of swear words commonly used in Australian English. Its focus is on different constructions which can be conveyed using the three lexical forms shit, fuck and cunt. Contrary to the popular belief that swear words are “meaningless”, it is shown that each of these swear words can be used to convey a number of specific meanings. These meanings are sometimes related, but each needs to be defined independently if similarities and differences between terms are to be precisely captured. Aspects of meaning discussed include the contrast between the exclamations Shit! and Fuck!, the common adjectival form fucking, the relationship of the referential term cunt to other uses, the contrast between fucking and making love, and the meaning conveyed by
semi-metaphorical forms such as to kick the shit out of someone. The method of semantic representation adopted is the Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) approach advocated by Anna Wierzbicka and others. The explications presented here have a number of implications. Relevant issues examined include the relationship between referential uses of swear words and the other meanings which they convey, the semantic importance of the consciousness of “phonetic form” in swearing, and the role of prototypes in the semantics of swear words. The semantic characterization of the concepts “swearing” and “swear word” is also discussed.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Karimnia, Amin (2012). A cross-cultural approach to contrasting offers in English and Persian. World Applied Sciences Journal, 16(2), 280-289. DOI: 10.1.1.389.5350. PDF (open access)
This study is an attempt to carry out a comparative analysis using Natural Semantic Metalanguage (henceforth NSM). The offering routine patterns of native Persian speakers was compared with that of Native American English speakers to see if it can provide evidence for the applicability of the NSM model. The descriptive technique was the cultural scripts approach, using conceptual primes proposed in the NSM theory. The cultural scripts were presented in both English and Persian metalanguages. The data were taken from a corpus of 20 hours of recorded live interviews from Persian and English TV channels. The results show the applicability of NSM model for cross-cultural comparisons. The paper concludes with the pedagogical implications of the development of the theory of cultural scripts for teaching L2 sociopragmatics in general and offers in particular.
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
Junker, Marie-Odile (2003). A Native American view of the “mind” as seen in the lexicon of cognition in East Cree. Cognitive Linguistics, 14(2-3), 167-194.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/cogl.2003.007
Abstract:
East Cree, an Algonquian language spoken in Northern Quebec, Canada, has a classifier eyi that indicates mental activity. This morpheme is found in a very large number of cognition words including all verbs for thinking, most for knowing, all for wanting, and several for feeling. A morphosyntactic analysis of over 500 words shows that metaphor plays a large role in Cree and that many common metaphors for thinking are found in the etymology of thinking words, as well as culture-specific ones. There are interesting correlations between thinking and feeling and between rational and supernatural processes. The data support the existence of semantic universals for mental predicates by providing evidence that East Cree has exponents for the semantic primes THINK, WANT, and KNOW. Interviews with elders confirm that the Cree ‘theory of mind’ has both universal and culture-specific aspects, like the ideas of wholeness, a connection with the greater ‘mind’ of creation (the Great Spirit), and respect for others, which is a central value of Cree culture.
Rating:
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Junker, Marie-Odile (2004). Les primitives sémantiques universelles en cri de l’Est [Universal semantic primes in East Cree]. In H.C. Wolfart (Ed.), Papers of the 35th Algonquian Conference (pp. 163-185). Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press. PDF (open access)
The aim of this paper is to assess the theory of semantic primitives in the light of East Cree data and to illustrate the contribution this theory can make to the analysis and description of the language. East Cree is spoken in a region of Northern Quebec, by about 13,000 speakers. We first outline the theory and present the list of exponents of the primes in Cree. We then discuss the heuristic procedure used to identify the primes and provide illustration for the primes HAPPEN, BODY, WANT, THINK, KNOW, SOMEONE, SOMETHING, PART (OF), KIND (OF), and WHY. Finally, we demonstrate the usefulness of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage as a tool for linguistic descriptions, in particular in fieldwork with monolingual speakers.
Junker, Marie-Odile, & Blacksmith, Louise (2006). Are there emotional universals? Evidence from the Native American language East Cree. Culture & Psychology, 12(3), 275-303. DOI: 10.1177/1354067X06061590
In her study on emotions across languages and cultures, Wierzbicka proposed a set of eleven working hypotheses on emotional universals. We test each of these hypotheses against data newly collected from the Native American language East Cree. Eight of these eleven hypotheses are confirmed, thus giving support to their universality. We offer cross-cultural comparison of anger-like, fear-like and shame-like concepts, and discuss the Cree expression of good and bad feelings, cry and smile, and Cree emotive interjections. Our findings indicate that not all languages commonly use figurative bodily images (‘my heart sank’) or bodily sensations (‘when I heard this, my throat went dry’) to describe cognitively based feelings. The Cree data also cast some doubt on a straightforward universal syntax for combining the primes, as proposed in the current Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) framework. However, we conclude that, for researchers interested in avoiding ethnocentric bias, the NSM approach is on the right track as a tool for cross-cultural, cross-linguistic research on emotions.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Junker, Marie-Odile (2008). Semantic primes and their grammar in a polysynthetic language: East Cree. In Cliff Goddard (Ed.), Cross-linguistic semantics (pp. 163-204). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/slcs.102.11jun
Using data from the polysynthetic language East Cree, this study examines challenges to the Natural Semantic Metalanguage theory developed by Wierzbicka and her colleagues. An almost complete version of the Cree NSM is proposed. While most primes have exponents in Cree, the universality of the lexical
realisation of partonymy is called into question. Most combinatorial properties of the semantic metalanguage are attested in Cree, except for problems in the syntactic combinations of THINK and FEEL with SOMETHING, and with GOOD and BAD. Current ways of thinking about NSM clause structure need to be revised to accommodate the pronominal argument structure of such a language. The NSM approach also proves to be a good bottom-up technique for language description. More polysynthetic languages need to be studied using this framework.
Jordan, Paul (2017). How to start, carry on and end conversations: Scripts for social situations for people on the autism spectrum. London: Jessica Kingsley.
Do you find it hard to make friends? Do you struggle to know what to say to start a conversation?
In this book, Paul Jordan, who is on the autism spectrum, explains how to make sense of everyday social situations you might encounter at school, university or in other group settings. He reveals how, with the use of just 65 simple words, it is possible to create ‘scripts for thinking’ that break conversations down into small chunks and help you to think of what to say, whether you are speaking to a fellow student, starting a conversation with a new friend, calling out bullies or answering a teacher’s question.
These small words will be a big help for all teenagers and young people with ASD.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Hughson, Jo-Anne (2004). The study of address pronouns in French and Spanish: A methodological review. Melbourne Papers in Linguistics & Applied Linguistics, 4(1), 23-33.
This article surveys various methodological approaches, both traditional and innovative, that have been employed in the field of address pronoun research, and assesses the strengths and weaknesses of each method. A new methodological approach is then presented, combining quantitative, qualitative and theoretical modes with the intention of eliminating limitations previously encountered in address pronoun research. A description of the theoretical approach, Wierzbicka’s cultural script theory, is then presented and the method applied to data collected in previous studies of address pronoun use in French
and Spanish.
Hudson, Joyce (1986). An analysis of illocutionary verbs in Walmatjari. In George Huttar & Kenneth Gregerson (Eds.), Pragmatics in non-western perspective (pp. 63-83). Dallas: University of Texas at Arlington. PDF (open access)
The twenty-two illocutionary verbs analyzed here represent the main speech acts of Walmatjari, an Australian Aboriginal language spoken along the Fitzroy River in the North of Western Australia. In my description, I follow the approach developed by Wierzbicka (1972, 1980), according to which explications of illocutionary verbs are given in terms of a small set of semantic primitives. The first of the verbs looked at (many) corresponds to the semantic primitive SAY. The others are semantically related to the following list of English verbs: tell, call (out), ask, request, order, respond, refuse, deny, stop, rebuke, prevent, forbid, demand, advise, sing, curse, tease, anger, laugh, talk, scold, quarrel, abuse, scream, confront, speak straight, say what you mean, cause shame, embarrass, stand in, take someone’s part.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Hirakawa, Kimiko (2013). Semantic explications for the sentence-final particles bai and tai of the Japanese Hakata dialect. Osaka Literary Review, 52, 1-15.
Abstract:
This paper describes and outlines the functions of two sentence-final particles of the Japanese Hakata dialect, bai and tai. The particles in question are especially known for characterizing the Hakata dialect, which is one of the linguistic variations in Fukuoka Prefecture. Taking into account similarities as well as differences, the paper proposes descriptions for the two particles and posits explications using NSM.
Rating:
Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner
Hill, Deborah (1987). A cross-linguistic study of value-judgement terms. MA thesis, Australian National University.
The purpose of this thesis is to try to establish the extent to which the words good, bad, true and right can be considered lexical universals. These words have been chosen because they are value-judgment terms that, individually, have been discussed at length by philosophers. It seems to be assumed by philosophers and semanticists that these words reflect concepts shared by speakers of all languages. By testing whether these words are candidates for lexical universals we can then see the extent to which this assumption is true.
On the basis of information from native speakers from 15 diverse languages, we can say that good and bad reflect language independent concepts (GOOD and BAD). However, in many languages, including English, the range of meaning of bad is narrower than the range of meaning of good. By looking at five of these fifteen languages we can see that the words right and true reflect concepts that are not language
independent. Thus, by taking a cross-linguistic approach, we can shed some light on the work done by language philosophers in the area of value-judgment terms.
The following languages are examined in this thesis: Arabic, Arrernte, Chinese (Mandarin), English, Ewe, Fijian, Finnish, Indonesian, Kannada, Korean, Russian, Spanish, Tagalog, Thai, Turkish.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Hill, Deborah (1994). Longgu. In Cliff Goddard, & Anna Wierzbicka (Eds.), Semantic and lexical universals: Theory and empirical findings (pp. 311-329). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/slcs.25.16hil
In general it has not been difficult to find lexical exponents of all of the proposed semantic primitives in Longgu. Indeed, in most cases (e.g. TWO, ALL, KNOW, WANT) there is a lexical representation which clearly corresponds to the primitive. However, making the link between the existence of an exponent (and, if present cross-linguistically, a lexical universal) and a primitive is clearly not as simple as finding the exponent. In the case of THINK, the evidence suggests that the meaning of the lexical exponent (una) is not centred around ‘think’ but around ‘thusly’. This somehow seems unsatisfactory and it raises the question of the expected relationship between a primitive and its exponent.
The ease with which lexical exponents of other primitives (IF, HAPPEN) are being replaced with other lexemes also seems unsatisfactory, even if it can be argued that this merely indicates the existence of two exponents of the same primitive.
The other points that have arisen from looking for these lexical exponents in Longgu have been ones of methodology and, in the case of PART OF, questioning whether the primitive is targeting a range of functions that are not captured by one lexical exponent in the language. The methodological problem was most evident in the case of OTHER. Despite the use of canonical sentences it remained difficult to separate the meaning conveyed by the English lexeme from the primitive.
These problems may not be insurmountable to deal with but the idea of finding lexical universals which correspond to semantic primitives would be all the more convincing if they could be adequately dealt with.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Hill, Deborah, & Goddard, Cliff (1997). Spatial terms, polysemy and possession in Longgu (Solomon Islands). Language Sciences, 19(3), 263-275. DOI: 10.1016/S0388-0001(96)00064-2
Lexical exponents of the proposed semantic primitives ABOVE, UNDER, INSIDE and ON THE SIDE are identified in Longgu (Solomon Islands). It is argued that the first three of these exponents are polysemous between a semantically primitive relational sense and a secondary topological sense. A number of issues relating to the morphosyntax of the exponents are discussed, including their status as ‘local nouns’, the significance of the fact that their basic syntactic frame employs the same system of person-number agreement suffixes as the inalienable possession construction, and the difference between this basic frame and a rarer ‘associative construction’. There is also a brief discussion of the status of the hypothetical primitive ON in Longgu.
Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Hasada, Rie (1997). Some aspects of Japanese cultural ethos embedded in nonverbal communicative behaviour. In Fernando Poyatos (Ed.), Nonverbal communication and translation (pp. 83-103). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/btl.17.09has
This paper considers the non-verbal behaviour typical of Japanese people and culture. The focus of discussion are those patterns that often appear incomprehensible or inscrutable in the eyes of non-Japanese people. Special attention is paid to eye-movement, crying, and smiling. The study of these patterns clarifies some important characteristics of Japanese people’s psychology and socio-cultural norms/needs/values in society.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
Hasada, Rie (1997). Conditionals and counterfactuals in Japanese. Language Sciences, 19(3), 277-288. DOI: 10.1016/S0388-0001(96)00065-4
This paper examines whether Anna Wierzbicka’s (1996a, 1996b) hypothesis that the ‘conditional’ and ‘counterfactual’ constructions are semantic universals, can be justified in the case of the Japanese language. Many Japanese constructions are compatible with both condition (IF) and temporal (WHEN) interpretation; despite this, it is shown that there is an unambiguous exponent of the IF-construction in Japanese, which uses the particle moshi. It is also shown that the English ‘hypothetical conditional’ has an equivalent, or near-equivalent, in Japanese. As for the counterfactual, it is argued that while there is an unambiguous counterfactual in Japanese, in the form of a construction with (no)ni, this construction is not a perfect equivalent of the English counterfactual because the Japanese construction always
implies that the speaker feels something bad about the real outcome.
Hasada, Rie (2000). An exploratory study of expression of emotions in Japanese: Towards a semantic interpretation. PhD thesis, Australian National University. PDF (open access)
The present study explores the emotional world of Japanese people. Using the framework of the Natural Semantic Metalanguage theory, this thesis attempts to explicate the conceptual organization of aspects of Modern Standard Japanese, with a special focus on the lexicon. This thesis also aims to explicate the cultural norms that are related to the emotion words/expressions with the use of culture-independent, universal Natural Semantic Metalanguage. A great amount of data is taken from various sources: TV or radio broadcasting, actual conversation, published literature both in Japanese and English, film scripts, dialogues in magazines, newspaper/magazine articles, comic books, advertisements, letters, dictionaries, and popular songs.
The work is organized in the following way. Chapter 1 is the introduction. Chapter 2 consists of a review of the literature on emotions and includes philosophical, anthropological, and psychological approaches. Chapter 3 demonstrates the importance of linguistic study for the research on emotions, and suggests the Natural Semantic Metalanguage as the most appropriate method for achieving the main goals of this thesis. Chapter 4 discusses the grammatical features of emotion expression sentences. Chapter 5 deals with those body parts terms which are related to emotions in Japanese. Chapters 6 to 11 explicate the meanings of various Japanese emotion words and expressions. Chapter 12 focuses on communication of nonverbal emotion in Japanese culture. Chapter 13 examines characteristic Japanese speakers’ attitudes towards emotions. Chapter 14 is the conclusion.
Wherever possible, the thesis seeks to probe into culturally-based aspects of the conceptual structure of emotion words/expressions, by drawing on a variety of anthropological, psychological, and sociological studies of Japanese society.
Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners
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Crude application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner |
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Approximate application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner |
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Sound application of NSM principles carried out without prior training by an experienced NSM practitioner |
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Research carried out in consultation with or under the supervision of one or more experienced NSM practitioners |
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Research carried out by one or more experienced NSM practitioners |